KEE YUAN NGIAM
March 1, 2023SEIZALARM
March 1, 20231989 – 1993
During the 90s AI winter, Expert Systems was launched, and ROBODOC was created as the first orthopedic surgical robot...
Expert Systems
The Expert System (ES) gained popularity in the late 80s and early 90s. Expert Systems were gradually applied in the diagnosis and treatment of different diseases such as colonic lesions, platelet request evaluation, pharmaceutical science, coronary heart disease, cancer, and anemia. The ES were computer programs that used prerecorded knowledge for procedure interpretation and aimed to solve problems that normally required human expertise using different artificial intelligence techniques. They were implemented with several intelligent information systems that used more than 2000 different rules and could explain their decisions. Databases of such systems had access to a massive amount of information about various diseases and therapy modalities. Physicians entered the signs and symptoms of some medical disorders, and the computer created a list of possible diagnoses and additional diagnostic tests. Therapy for the condition was also suggested. Therefore, the purpose of ES was to support the diagnosis process of physicians, making it faster and more accurate.(1)
The Second Artificial Intelligence Winter
During 1991, the interest in Artificial Intelligence started to decline because the expectations in some projects could not be reached. Despite the disappointment, Expert Systems won popularity for a while, and soon their validation became polemical. John McCarthy alleged that Expert Systems lacked common sense and knowledge about their limitations. The bad reputation of Artificial Intelligence projects made them lose acceptance in the medical field.
Therefore, the AAAI conference of 1991 attracted just 2000 visitors, a lot fewer visitors than the one in 1986, which attracted 6000 visitors. Moreover, the publications of AI-related articles decreased starting in 1987, reaching their lowest in 1995, according to New York Times.(2)
The Second Artificial Intelligence Winter
During 1991, the interest in Artificial Intelligence started to decline because the expectations in some projects could not be reached. Despite the disappointment, Expert Systems won popularity for a while, and soon their validation became polemical. John McCarthy alleged that Expert Systems lacked common sense and knowledge about their limitations.
The bad reputation of Artificial Intelligence projects made them lose acceptance in the medical field.Therefore, the AAAI conference of 1991 attracted just 2000 visitors, a lot fewer visitors than the one in 1986, which attracted 6000 visitors. Moreover, the publications of AI-related articles decreased starting in 1987, reaching their lowest in 1995, according to New York Times.(2)
ROBODOC: First Orthopedic Surgical Robot
In 1992, ROBODOC was the first surgical robot used in the United States for orthopedics procedures. It performed a total hip arthroplasty (THA) on a 64-year-old patient with osteoarthritis in Sutter General Hospital, Sacramento, California.(3)It is an active-autonomous, image-based robot system and five-axis robotic arm with a high-speed milling device. Moreover, its principal function is to assist the surgeon in completing a cement-less total hip articulation replacement (4) However, Dr. Paul practiced on twenty-six canine patients before using it in humans. Dr. Paul then performed the surgery on ten human patients, and finally, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved it.(5)
ROBODOC: First Orthopedic Surgical Robot
In 1992, ROBODOC was the first surgical robot used in the United States for orthopedics procedures. It performed a total hip arthroplasty (THA) on a 64-year-old patient with osteoarthritis in Sutter General Hospital, Sacramento, California.(3)It is an active-autonomous, image-based robot system and five-axis robotic arm with a high-speed milling device.
Moreover, its principal function is to assist the surgeon in completing a cement-less total hip articulation replacement (4) However, Dr. Paul practiced on twenty-six canine patients before using it in humans. Dr. Paul then performed the surgery on ten human patients, and finally, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved it.(5)This surgically specialized robot began its procedure by reading the tape from the ORTHODOC and performing diagnostic checks. Integrated Surgical System (ISS) commercialized the technology, and International Business Machine Corporation (IBM) provided the initial funds. ISS received Computer/Smithsonian Award in Medicine for ROBODOC.(5) This introduction led to the rapid development of three-dimension image direct, preoperative planning robot surgery.(6)